termine the foundation type (shallow versus deep foundation), calculate the amount of settlement of the structure, evaluate the effect of groundwater on the project and develop recommendations for dewatering of underground structures, perform slope stability analyses for projects having sloping topography, and prepare site development recommendations. 6.3.1 Introduction In addition to document review and subsurface exploration, an important part of the site investigation is laboratory testing. The laboratory testing usually begins once the subsurface exploration is complete. The first step in the laboratory testing is to log in all of the materials (soil, rock, or groundwater) recovered from the subsurface exploration. Then the geotechnical engineer and engineering geologist prepare a laboratory testing program, which basically consists of assigning specific laboratory tests for the soil specimens. The actual laboratory testing of the soil specimens is often performed by experienced technicians, who are under the supervision of the geotechnical engineer. Because the soil samples can dry out or changes in the soil structure could occur with time, it is important to perform the laboratory tests as soon as possible. Usually at the time of the laboratory testing, the geotechnical engineer and engineering geologist will have located the critical soil layers or subsurface conditions that will have the most impact on the design and construction of the project. The laboratory testing program should be oriented towards the testing of those critical soil layers or subsurface conditions. For many geotechnical projects, it is also important to determine the amount of ground surface movement due to construction of the project. In these cases, laboratory testing should model future expected conditions so that the amount of movement or stability of the ground can be analyzed. Laboratory tests should be performed in accordance with standard procedures, such as those recommended by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or those procedures listed in standard textbooks or specification manuals. For laboratory tests, it has been stated (M. J. Tomlinson, Foundation Design and Construction, 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York): It is important to keep in mind that natural soil deposits are variable in composition and state of consolidation; therefore it is necessary to use considerable judgment based on common sense and practical experience in assessing test results and knowing where reliance can be placed on the data and when they should be discarded. It is dangerous to put blind faith in laboratory tests, especially when they are few in number. The test data should be studied in conjunction with the borehole records and the site observations, and any estimations of bearing pressures or other engineering design data obtained from them should be checked as far as possible with known conditions and past experience. Laboratory tests should be as simple as possible. Tests using elaborate equipment are time-consuming and therefore costly, and are liable to serious error unless carefully and conscientiously carried out by highly experienced technicians. Such methods may be quite unjustified if the samples are few in number, or if the cost is high in relation to the cost of the project. Elaborate and costly tests are justified only if the increased accuracy of the data will give worthwhile savings in design or will eliminate the risk of a costly failure. FIGURE 6.7 Soil element and the soil element separated into phases.

Litigation. In the event settlement or mediation cannot resolve a dispute and the parties do not wish to arbitrate, the only remaining course of action is to litigate the dispute. This requires that much time and money be expended for depositions, document and other discovery, and preparation for trial. The final results are rendered by a group of individuals (the jury) or judge not involved in the building industry. Therefore, a possession of a thorough knowledge and understanding of issues affecting the architectural and engineering profession and construction industry become the responsibility of each partys legal counsel to establish a true and accurate picture of each partys position and the facts in the case. See also Art. 17.14. The American Institute of Architects has formulated the following basic principles for guidance of architects: Advice and counsel constitute the service of the profession. Given in verbal, written, or graphic form, they are normally rendered in order that buildings with their equipment and the areas about them, in addition to being well suited to their purposes, well planned for health, safety, and efficient operation and economical maintenance, and soundly constructed of materials and by methods most appropriate and economical for their particular uses, shall have a beauty and distinction that lift them above the common- place. It is the purpose of the profession of architecture to render such services from the beginning to the completion of a project. The fulfillment of that purpose is advanced every time architects render the highest quality of service they are capable of giving. In particular, the architects drawings, specifications, and other documents should be complete, definite, and clear concerning the architects intentions, the scope of the contractors work, the materials to be employed, and the conditions under which the construction is to be completed and the work paid for. The relation of architects to their clients depends on good faith. Architects should explain the exact nature and extent of their services and the conditional character of construction cost estimates made before final drawings and specifications are complete. The contractor depends on the architect to guard the contractors interests as well as those of the client. The architect should reject workmanship and materials that are determined not to be in conformity with the contract documents, but it is also the architects duty to give reasonable aid toward a complete understanding of those documents so that errors may be avoided. An exchange of information between architects and those who supply and handle building materials should be

Braced sections that meet the requirements for compactness, and are continuous over their supports or rigidly framed to columns, are also permitted a redistribution of the design moments. Negative gravity-load moments at supports may be reduced 10%. But then, the maximum positive moment must be increased by 1% of the average negative moments. This moment redistribution does not apply to cantilevers, hybrid girders, or members of the A514 steel. Allowable Bending Stresses for Noncompact Beams. Many other beam-type members, including nearly compact sections that do not meet all seven requirements, are accorded allowable bending stresses, some higher and some considerably lower than 0.66Fy, depending on such conditions as shape factor, direction of loading, inherent resistance to torsion or buckling, and external lateral support. The common conditions and applicable allowable bending stresses are summarized in Fig. 7.31. In the formulas, FIGURE 7.31 Allowable bending stresses for sections not qualifying as compact. l  distance, in, between cross sections braced against twist or lateral displacement of the compression flange rt  radius of gyration, in, of a section comprising the compression flange plus one-third of the compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane of